The Civilizational Element of Iranian Spirit in Europe and China

By: Seyed Javad Meynagh

The world we live in is the battleground of ideas, philosophies, vices and virtues, religions, traditions, military forces, ideologies, cultures, civilizations and wills of great individuals. The constitution of self and society is never devoid of these and many great other elements that would shape our spiritual orientation and condition our material morphology. As there are people with different tempers and orientations certainly there are civilizations with salient distinctiveness which may differ from one another in ‘aim’ and ‘orientation’. There have been great many civilizations on this planet which have contributed in one way or other to the spiritual constitution of humanity in various forms and manners. Some have died and others still alive and exert vitality throughout the globe. In each nation there is an element (or constellation of fundamental elements) which is more salient than other elements which makes a different in the course of history and distinguishes X from Y in crucial sense as one individual from another one. One of those great civilizations which has shaped the civilizational framework of humanity is the Iranian one that has contributed to the spiritual life of human race for the past 7000 years incessantly in various guises and forms in different contexts and settings such as Science (Medicine that still bears the name of Medians even in the modern English) Theosophy/Philosophy/Metaphysics/ (Magic that still bears the name of Magus even in the modern English which wrongly has been interpreted by secular anthropologists of 19^th century as the weird way of doing science among primitive people) and many other fields of life. But for reasons that fall outside the concern of this essay this undeniable fact has come to be minimized and in certain contexts even completely and unjustly repudiated. This trend has become even more of a norm since the religious revolution of Iranian nations in 1979. Since the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 there has been an orchestrated attack upon Iran as a nation among world nations by England, France and America to portray Iranian nation as an uncivilized people who deserve nothing but misery and embargo of all kinds. In this article I am not intending to endorse any government (s) or rebuke another state (s) as this is not the main concern of this essay before your eyes. On the contrary what I am concerned here is what I term as the civilizational element that lies within the parameters of Iranian spirit since its inception almost about 7000 years ago as a world reality up to this very day in all its various guises and characters. This ‘Iranian Civilizational Element’ has been at work in almost all parts of the world both in antiquity and modern epochs. Here I would like to look at two parts of the world where this element has been at work; one is in the heartland of Europe and the second is in the heartland of Asia and both contain strong elements of the Iranian spirit but rarely mentioned by historians of civilizations within modern disciplinary discourses. This unjustified approach has been intensified and employed in political terms by certain elements within the contemporary world system in England, America, France and even countries without history or culture such as Canada and Australia. By looking at these two farfetched cases, where one would scarcely think that Iran could have proved influential, I would like to bring into your attention the unceasing effervescence of this civilizational element within Iranian spirit that has made the world indebted to but rarely mentioned since the emergence of Iranian Revolution in 19179 which is another indication of the spirit for the heralding of a new world system.

The first case is in Europe (Turkey, Albania, Hungary, Bosnia, …) and the second one is in China where Iranian spirit shaped the biographies of their cultures respectively for generations to come up to this very day. In both cases we can see the obvious working of this Iranian civilizational element in both European and Chinese contexts respectively. In these two instances we can witness the touch of Iranian spirit in the constitution of self and society in an undeniable fashion where religion and education played grand roles in brining about spiritual transformations in grand civilizational scale. In the Chinese case we shall see how two great individuals through their compassionate guidance (in the role of foster parents) did change the worldview of Ananda and in the European case we are going to witness the spiritual significance of a learned wisdom philosopher (Haji Bektash) who by example transformed the course of religion in the heartland of Europe. Within the heart of these two instances one can see the touch of Iranian spirit and the civilizational direction of Iranian spirit. Elsewhere I have catalogued the role of Iranian spirit in the constitution of two other great spiritual movements in Tibet (the role of Iranian in the establishment of Tibetan Royal Family) and India (the role of another Iranian in the constitution of Janeism) – other important element is Manichaeism which took over almost all parts of the known world from Asia to Europe as far as Africa- and one can see the civilizational resonances of Iranian spirit even within the context of modernity and the rise of the new world system (in regard to Imam Khomeini) that we shall debate in the forthcoming essay.

Iranian Spirit in Europe

Europe has been misconceived by her intellectual elites in the historiographical sense which has brought many socio-political miseries for the constitution of modernity within and without. One of those misconceptions is the very idea of Europe, which has been wrongly misconstrued in a monological sense based on primarily Christianity and secondarily as a modern secular invention devoid of any substantial reliance on other human civilizations. Besides the role of Islam in the constitution of modern Europe and the role of Islam within the life of Europe have both been completely denied and it seems the secular intellectual elites of Europe live in a state of neurotic denial vis-à-vis Islam and Muslims. Furthermore it has become almost impossible within scholarly contexts of social theory and philosophy to debate the questions of self, society, culture, and civilization within European setting in reference to Islam and the vital sources that brought Islam into Europe such as what we have called the civilizational element of Iranian spirit. At every stage of her life Europe has been indebted to the East in general and Iran in particular. For instance, in the early stages of ancient Greek it was Iran that nourished the nascent Greek culture as it was during the emergence of Renaissance via Islamic Spain that brought new horizons into the life of Europe but up to this very day denied or ignored by social theorists and historiographians. Today we need to rediscover the roots of Muslim intellectual traditions within Europe if we are serious about the coexistence between Muslims and non-Muslims in Europe and America as coexistence without dialogue and dialogue without logic and logic without proper intellectual consolidations are impossible and on all these the role of Iranians is undeniable as the Muslim philosophy is based on the spirit of Iranian ethos.

First we would like to look at Bektashi order in Europe. The founder of this order was a man called Haji Bektashi Veli. He was one of those figures who came to Anatolia from Iran. He was born in Nishabur, Khorasan Province in 1248, spent his childhood in Khorasan, and was trained in philosophy and social and positive sciences at Khodja Ahmed Yesevi’s school. After traveling for many years Haji Bektash settled in Sulucukarahoyuk in 1275/80.

The Bektashi order is a Sufi religious order or tarika means "way" or "path" and, in the Sufi tradition of Islam is conceptually related to Ḥaqīqah, or Truth, the ineffable ideal that is the pursuit of the tradition. Thus one starts at the Sharī`ah, the exoteric or mundane practice of Islam and adopts a tarika towards the Ḥaqīqah. It was founded in the 13th century 13th century - 14th century by Hajji Bektash Wali Hunkar Haci Bektaş Veli was a Turkish mystic, humanist and a philosopher who lived approx from 1209-1271 in Anatolia (Turkey). Originally from Central Asia and a follower of the 'Yasawi' Sufi order that was very active in Central Asia doing missionary work among the Turkish tribes of the area. Sent by his sheikh, Ahmad Yasawi, to Anatolia Haji Bektash remained there until his passing away and a Sufi order soon developed based upon his teachings. But it did not reach its present form until 16th century when the order was given definite structure by Balim Sultan. Bektashism is a branch of the Shi'ism although it has drifted away considerably from orthodox Shi'ite belief and practice due to the lack of organic relationship with Ulema in Qom, Mashhad, Najaf, Kerbela and other sites of learning. Bektashism has come to look more in the recent time as a blending of both Shi'ite and Sufi concepts by a very relax attitude towards Sharia. In post-Ottoman Albania Bektashism evolved more into a distinct Islamic sect rather than a traditional Sufi order. Bektashism is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such as the need for an experienced spiritual guide (murshid), the doctrine of the four gates (Shari'ah, Tariqah, Ma'rifah, Haqiqah). Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept of Wahdat al-Wujud, the "Unity of Being" that was formulated by Ibn Arabi Muhi al-Din Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn al-'Arabi commonly known only as Ibn 'Arabi or Ibn Arabi was born 1165 in Murcia, Spain and died 1240 in Damascus.

Sometimes described as a mystical philosopher he is best known throughout the Islamic world simply as the “greatest master” (al-shaykh al-akbar). Even in his lifetime he was acknowledged to be one of the most important spiritual teachers within Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam. This has often been erroneously labled by Westerners as pantheism Pantheism literally means "God is All" and "All is God". It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. More detailed definitions tend to emphasize the idea that natural law, existence and/or the universe (the sum total of all that is was and shall be) is represented or personified in the theological principle of 'God’. Although it is a concept closer to panentheism (Panentheism is the view that God is immanent within all Creation or that God is the animating force behind the universe) however, unlike pantheism, panentheism does not mean that the universe is all God or that God contains the universe inside himself. Bektashism is also heavily permeated with Shi'ite concepts, such as the marked veneration of 'Ali, the Twelve Imams and the ritual commemoration of the Ashurah marking the Battle of Karbala. The Battle of Karbala, sometimes known as the "tragedy of Karbala", was a skirmish that took place on October 10, 680, in Iraq. In the Islamic calendar the date is the 10th of Muharram, 61 AH. The battle saw the large and professional army of the Umayyad Caliph Yazid, around 30,000 strong, surrounding the family and friends of Imam Husayn, which consisted of 72 men and boys, 2 of whom were the Husayn's sons. The Old Persian holiday of Noruz is also celebrated by Bektashis as being Imam Ali's birthday.

In keeping with the central belief of Wahdat al-Wujud the Bektashi see reality contained in Allah Allah/Muhammad/Ali, a single unified entity. This doctrine has been confused by outsiders with a form of trinity, which is a gross oversimplification. There are many other practices and ceremonies that share similarity with other faiths, such as a ritual meal (muhabbet), and yearly confession of sins to a baba (magfirat-i zunub). This has led many to form theories of borrowing and syncretism from Christianity and Gnosticism. Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox and mystical interpretation and understanding of the Qur'an. They have no written doctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has been taught. They also hold reverence for the texts of Al-Ghazali and Jelalludin Rumi –who are part of Iranian canons of philosophy and poetry- who are close in spirit to them. Bektashis – in accordance to the Shiism - hold that the Qur'an has two levels of meaning: an outer (zahir) and an inner (batin). They hold the latter to be superior and eternal and this is reflected in their understanding of both the universe. Bektashism is also initiatic and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress on the spiritual path. First level members are called aşıks. They are those who, while not having taken initiation into the order are nevertheless draw to it. Following initiation (called nesib) one becomes a mühip. After some time as a mühip, one can take further vows and become a dervish. The word Dervish, especially in European languages, refers to members of Sufi Muslim ascetic religious fraternities, known for their extreme poverty and austerity, similar to mendicant friars. The term is a Persian word and bears the mark of Iranian institution of Gnosticism which dates back to 5000 years ago.

The term comes from the Persian word Darvish, which usually refers to a mendicant ascetic. This latter word is also used to refer to an unflappable or ascetic temperament (as in the Urdu phrase darwaishana thabiyath for an ascetic temperament); that is, for an attitude that is indifferent to material possessions and the like.
The next level above dervish is that of baba. The baba (lit. father) is considered to be the head of a tekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance (irshad). Above the baba is the rank of halife-baba (or dede, grandfather). Traditionally there were twelve of these, the most senior being the dedebaba (great-grandfather). The dedebaba was considered to be the highest ranking authority in the Bektashi Order. Traditionally the residence of the dedebaba was the Pir Evi (The Saint's Home) which was located in the shrine of Haji Bektash in the central Anatolian town of Hacıbektaşköy (aka Solucakarahüyük). Again the term ‘Pir’ refers to Iranian version of Gnosticism which dates back to Moghan system of Gnosticism.

The brief abovementioned narrative was to demonstrate the place and importance of Bekatshi Order in the constitution of spiritual development of Europe, which owes a great debt to a great son of Iran, who shaped the history of Europe to this very day. The intellectual seeds of this spiritual revolution in Europe started from Nishabur which lies in the northeast of Iran and has been home to several great many philosophers, poets, scientists, Gnostics, and theologians of both Zoroastrian and Islam as well as Sunni and Shia denominations within Islamic tradition. The archaeological excavation has found traces of civilization which show the existence of Nishapur during the Sassanid era. Exploration of some important monuments of the old city of Nishapur such as Masjid-e Kabir (the big mosque), gates of Kohan Dezh, and its fire temples are the other important indications that a highly developed and vibrant civilization existed here.

Historical documents indicate that Nishapur existed during the Sassanid era. Furthermore, archaeologists believed that the city has derived its name from its reputed founder, the Sassanid king, Shapur, which indicates the existence of the city at that time. Based on historical documents, the city was captured by Muslim in 30 Hijra, an event which itself is proof of the existence of a big city during Sassanid era. In addition to historical documents, the existence of clays and cultural evidence belonging to Sassanid era in the city, all indicate the existence of the city during the time.

Furthermore these archeological excavations led to the discovery of some important quarters in the old city of Nishapur which was the residence of the rulers and the noble people of the city and additionally enabled the researchers to reveal the existence of aristocratic life and the developed artistic points of view during this period.

Nishapur, as abovementioned, is a town in the province of Khorasan in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binallud Mountains, near the regional capital of Mashhad. Nishapur occupies an important strategic position astride the old Silk Road that linked Anatolia and the Mediterranean with China. The revolution that shook and forever changed the spiritual morphology of vast parts of Europe took place in Nishapurian sites of learning where Haji Bektash first studied and learned to reflect over the existential questions of life.

Iranian Spirit in China

The second instance which we would like to dwell upon in regard to the role of Iran in the constitution of global civilization is the role of Iranian spirit in transforming the course of Chinese history by elevating it through a specifically Iranian spiritual element. Let’s first have a brief look at the story of Islam in Chinese landscape.

The Muslim National Minorities in China

According to the 1990 census, the Muslim population of the People's Republic of China is more than 55 million, out of which there were 22 million Hui, 31 million Uighur, 1.1 million Kazakhs, 375,000 Kyrghyz, 33,500 Tajik, and 14,500 Uzbeks. The Hui primarily speak Chinese, the Tajik an Irano-European language related to Persian, and all the others Turkic dialects. The Hui are unique among the fifty-six officially recognized nationalities of China in that religion (Islam) is their only unifying category of identity. They have no common unique national tongue, have had much intermarriage with Han Chinese, and live in almost every city and town across China. They have one autonomous region - Ningxia, between southern Gansu and Inner Mongolia - two autonomous prefectures and nine autonomous counties. The Chinese word "Hui" is also used to refer to all Muslims, both inside and outside China.

The Chinese term for Islam is either the religion of the Hui or the transliteration Yisilan religion. The Hui Chinese have diverse origins. Some in the southeast coast are descended from Arab traders who settled in China and gradually intermarried and assimilated into the surrounding population keeping only their distinctive religion. A totally different explanation is available for the Mandarin Chinese-speaking Yunnan and Northern Huis, whose ethnogenesis might be a result of the convergence of large number of Mongol, Turkic or other Central Asian settlers in these regions who formed the dominant stratum in the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. It was documented that a proportion of these nomad or military ethnic groups were originally Nestorian Christians who were later drawn to the strong magnetism of Islam, while under the sinicizing pressures of the Ming and Qing states.

This explains the ethnonym "Hui," in close affinity with that of "Uygur," albeit Sinicized and contradistinctive from "Uygur" in usage. The ethnonym "Hui," though for a long time used as an umbrella term (at least since Qing) to designate Muslim Chinese speakers everywhere and Muslims in general (for example, a Qing Chinese might describe a Uygur as a "Chantou" who practiced the "Hui" religion), was not used in the Southeast as much as "Qingzhen." Southeastern Muslims also have a much longer tradition of synthesizing Confucian teachings with the Sharia and Qur'anic teachings, and were reported to have been contributing to the Confucian officialdom since the Tang period. Among the Northern Hui, on the other hand, there are strong influences of Iranian Sufi schools such as Kubrawiyya, Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya (Khufiyya and Jahriyya) etc. mostly of the Hanafi Madhhab (whereas among the Southeastern communities the Shafi'i Madhhab is more of the norm). Before the "Ikhwani" movement, a Chinese variant of the Salafi movement, Northern Hui Sufis were very fond of synthesizing Taoist teachings and martial arts practices with Sufi philosophy. In early modern times, villages in Northern Chinese Hui areas still bore labels like "Blue-cap Huihui," "Black-cap Huihui," and "White-cap Huihui," betraying their possible Christian, Judaic and Muslim origins, even though the religious practices among North China Hui by then were by and large Islamic. Hui is also used as a catch-all grouping for Islamic Chinese who are not classified under another ethnic group. Huis anywhere are referred to by Central Asian Turks and Tajiks as Dungans, even though academic scholars only recognize one Hui group, that of Kyrgyzstan, as Dungan.

Included with Hui Chinese are other Islamic Chinese who are dissimilar to Han Chinese but do not have their own ethnic group, such as several thousand Huis in southern Hainan Island who still speak an Austronesian language related to the Cham language in Vietnam. Not included are groups such as the Uyghur who do practice Islam, but are different culturally from the Han.

Origin of the Hui

Although the Huis are one of the national minorities of China, they do not constitute an ethnically homogeneous group. They come from Arab, Persian, Central Asian, and Mongol origins, and arrived in China in several waves. The first Arab Islamic delegation came to Tang Dynasty China in 651 CE, nineteen years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad and one year after the Muslim conquest of Iran. From this time onward, a great number of Iranian merchants settled along the southeast coast of China. In 758, the Tang Chinese emperor requested the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad to send an army of 20,000 soldiers to help put down the An Lushan rebellion. The Arab and Persian soldiers remained in China afterward, settling in the northwest areas of Ningxia and Gansu. Further, in 801 the Tibetans engaged 20,000 Arab and Sogdian mercenaries to help in their war against the Nanchao kingdom in Yunnan, southwestern China. Although the Tibetans suffered defeat, the Muslim soldiers remained in the region. A further wave of 15,000 Muslim (Iranian) soldiers came in 1070 and 1080 at the invitation of the Northern Song Chinese emperor to establish a buffer zone in northeastern China between his diminished kingdom and the expanding Khitan Empire.

The largest portion of Hui, however, descends from the two to three million Central Asian Iranian Muslims that the Mongol ruler Khubilai Khan brought to China in the 1270s as a military reserve. They helped with his conquest of southern China in 1279 and, in peace, settled throughout China as merchants, agricultural laborers, and craftsmen.

One of Khubilai Khan's grandsons, Ananda, was raised by Persian Muslim foster parents. In 1285, he became Prince of Anxi, an area that spanned the conquered Tangut kingdom in Gansu, Ningxia, and Sichuan. The Tanguts followed a combined form of Tibetan and Chinese Buddhism. Together with his cousin, Ghazan Khan of the Khanate in West Turkistan, Prince Ananda converted to Islam in 1295. Consequently the strong Mongol army of more than hundred fifty thousands soldiers in Anxi and most of the Tanguts also adopted the Islamic faith. Thus, by the end of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the Hui were the largest minority in China. The scholars, however, failed to explore the role of the Iranian in the conversion of Ananda who changed the course of history of China forever. They failed to analyze the extent of Iranian element within the global order during thirteenth centuries and how and of what nature was the teaching of the so-called ‘Persian Foster Parents’ in transforming the worldview of Ananda. But whatever the outcome of the future research on the role of this Iranian element and Ananda’s role in Chinese history one fact remains intact and that is the spiritual constitution of Chinese thought that remains heavily indebted to Iran. But the importance of the Iranian educational/religious spirit becomes more evident when we look at the unfolding of Islam in Chinese soil after Ananda’s departure. (Wolfram Eberhard, 1937)

Protection of the Hui during the Ming Dynasty

According to many scholars, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, the native Han Chinese dynasty that ruled China after the Mongols, was actually of Hui descent, although this fact was kept well hidden. After defeating the Mongols, he gave religious, political, and economic freedom to the Hui. As a way to protect them from Han Chinese prejudice, however, he decreed that the Hui must marry, speak, and dress Chinese. From this time onward, the Hui identity was transformed into a ‘Chinese’ one without any apparent organic connection to Iranian cultural roots but there are still great many evidences even today that points to Iran such as the names of Islamic rituals and prayers as well as celebrations such as ‘Fasting’ (Rozeh), Prayers (Namaz) and so on and so forth.

Manchu Persecution during the Qing Dynasty

As a backlash against Ming protection of the Hui, the next dynasty to rule China, the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912), began a persecution of Muslims in China. This persecution extended to the Muslim Uighurs in East Turkistan as well. Between 1648 and 1878, more than twelve million Hui and Uighur Muslims were killed in ten unsuccessful uprisings against Qing oppression. The Tibetans, however, who were also persecuted by the Manchu and Han Chinese Qing forces, maintained good relations with the Hui. The Fifth Dalai Lama, for example, visited Hui Islamic leaders in Yinchuan, the capital of present-day Ningxia, in 1652 on his way to the Manchu Imperial Court in Beijing. They discussed philosophical and religious issues.

Migration to Kyrghyzstan -- The Dungans

Two waves of Hui migrated to West Turkistan under Russian rule in the late nineteenth century. The first group came in 1878 from Gansu and Shanxi, after an unsuccessful uprising against Manchu rule. The second wave came in 1881 from the Ili River valley in far western East Turkistan. The Russians had occupied the region in 1871, but after its return to China with the Treaty of St. Petersburg in 1881, the local people were given the choice of Russian or Chinese citizenship. These two waves of Hui immigrants settled mostly in the Chu River valley of Kyrghyzstan, near Bishkek. They called themselves Dungans.

Western and Eastern Hui

At present, the Hui in China divide into two major groups. The Western Hui, centered in Ningxia, live also in Gansu (both within and outside the Amdo portions), Qinghai, the western half of Inner Mongolia, and the northern Chinese provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, Hunan and Hebei. These are the Muslims who are moving in large numbers into Central Tibet and who now own one-third of the stores in Lhasa. Their spiritual and cultural center is Lingxia, situated between Labrang Monastery and Lanzhou in Gansu. The Eastern Hui live primarily in the eastern half of Inner Mongolia.

Conclusion

The importance of Ananda’s foster parents and Haji Bektash’s significance in the constitutions of spirituality based on Iranian civilizational elements need to be reconstructed. As this would not be of a merely historical significance but it may enable us to reconstruct the dialogue among civilizations and religions of Islam, Mithraism, Manichaeism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Confucianism via the spirit of Iran which is still at work and has been playing constructively since the emergence of Islamic Revolution in 1979 globally too. All Human inventions are first thoughts before they become things. So the creations of communities such as cities, governments, armies, as well as communal achievements such as conquests and discoveries— everything that goes to make a civilization — must spring from a community's thoughts. Hence Civilization is the tangible expression of a communal understanding. If the Communal Understanding is that single understanding allowed by the set of values common to each member of a community then the role of Ananda’s foster parents who were part of a noble community would gain a totally different significance in the constitution of spirituality in China through that Iranian civilizational element. The cordial relation between Ananda and his Iranian family set the course of events in a totally different manner as did Haji Bektashi’s approach to spirituality in Europe which transformed the hearts of men and women towards higher conception of reality again through that vital Iranian civilizational element. It is not futile to mention the role of three Iranian Sages who are mentioned in the Bible or the role of Iranians in the constitution of Montesquieu’s conception of modernity in the Persian Letters or the role of Manicheans in the constitution of Augustinian theology and Zoroastrian philosophy in the establishment of Greek Philosophy – not mentioning the role of Iranian spirit in the constitution of Spanish music and dance. But one may question the validity or even the importance of this element as Iran since the loss of her lands to Russian and British Empires at the turn of previous century. If this civilizational spirit is of such great magnitude then why has Iran’s decisive global role deteriorated gradually and completely in the context of modernity? This is a relevant question which touches upon the very heart of possible future vitality of this element in the global scene provided Iran is reliant on the role of People within the framework of Transcendence Metaphysics in conjunction to the importance of Freedom. These are three questions that have been best discussed by four great souls of contemporary Iran, namely Imam Khomeini, Imam Musa Sadr, Ali Shariati, and Seyyed Mohammad Xatami. In our upcoming essay we will look at the pathological problems that have weakened the impulse of this civilizational element of Iranian spirit in the constitution of self and society in a global epoch.

Note

Eberhard, Wolfram. Chinese fairy tales and folk tales. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tubner, 1937.

Hucker, Charles O. The Ming dynasty: its origins and evolving institutions. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1978.

Israeli, Raphael. Islam in China: religion, ethnicity, culture, and politics. Lanham, Md: Lexington Books, 2002.

Pollo, Stefanaq. The history of Albania: from its origins to the present day; with the collaboration of Kristo Frasheri and Skënder Anamali; English translation by Carol Wiseman and Ginnie Hole: Routledge & Kegan Paul,1981.

Shankland, David. The Alevis in Turkey: the emergence of a secular Islamic tradition. London: Routledge Curzon, 2003.

Endicott-West, Elizabeth. Mongolian rule in China: local administration in the Yuan dynasty. Harvard: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1989.

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